Our
earliest ancestors thought that the stars were holes in the firmament,
pinpricks that let the light in from beyond. They couldn’t know that the part
of the universe they could observe was actually a hundred thousand million
million million miles across - surely far enough for anyone to want to see - or
that the universe is infinite. Stars are in reality balls of gas with a solid
core, born in swirling gas clouds that react when they become sufficiently
dense in their core for nuclear fusion to take place, the burning of hydrogen
to become helium. This causes heat and light, and makes the star “shine”. The
speed of light is 186,282.397 miles per second, and a light year is the
equivalent of nearly 6 million million miles. Some stars are so distant that
their light takes thousands of millions of years to reach us. The nearest known
star is 4.3 light years away.
The
oldest stars are up to 12 billion years old, and the universe itself was
calculated to be at least the same age. However, as the universe is now found
to be expanding at an increasing rate, thanks to studies of supernova, it must
have been expanding more slowly in the beginning (Einstein’s cosmological
constant parameter), making it 10% older, around 14 billion years old. A galaxy
appears to be moving 160,000 mph faster for every 3.26 million light-years
distance from Earth.
Star
births can now be seen using infrared light and it is thought that most stars
are born as twins, with 60% plus forming binary systems. It isn’t known why
this is, but one theory is that the shape of the gas cloud could determine it.
It is thought that stars are generally formed in clusters that stay together
for about 10 million years. According to Dr Cathie Clark of the Institute of
Astronomy at the University of Cambridge, using her colleague Dr Ian Bonnell’s
computer calculations, stars in the centre of a cluster get larger as a result
of “dogfights” with their neighbour stars for scraps of matter. The larger star
then attracts more material, so continues to get bigger and to dominate its
star zone.
About
3,000 years ago the Babylonians divided the ecliptic into the twelve signs of
the zodiac, each named to coincide with the constellation through which the sun
appeared to pass. They observed the skies so that they could estimate the
seasons and regulate their crops, and also to draw up horoscopes, believing
they could predict events of the future from the positions and movements of
celestial bodies. This was significant in the history of astronomy, since the
closely observed record of the motions in the sky resulted in a technique of
observation that was adopted by astronomers.
The
zodiac represents the twelve divisions of the skies set along the ecliptic. It
reached 8° above the ecliptic and 8° below, and included all the known planets.
When the Babylons formulated the system the vernal equinox (the point where the
ecliptic intersects the equator) was in Aries so the zodiacal New Year begins
with Aries, on or around March 21, marking the first day of spring in the
Northern Hemisphere. Each division of 30° contains a major constellation
through which the sun appears to pass in the course of a year. The zodiac then
was a fixed or sidereal zodiac, measured from a chosen star, known as a fiducial.
The
Babylonians and the Egyptians measured their longitudes from a number of “fixed
stars” in the heavens. These fiducials were the Pleiades, in those times to be
found around 5° TA, Aldebaran at 15° TA, Regulus at 5° LE, Spica at 29° VI, and
Antares at 15° SC. The Roman people also took up sidereal astrology at a
popular level, which was developed to new heights, though their government did
not encourage astrology. The first major astrologer was Nigidius Figulus, a
student of Posidonius (135-51 BC).
Manilius
(approx. 48 BC-20 AD) wrote his famous Astronomica
c. 14 AD. In this he observed the Greek tradition of assigning a constellation
for each of the principal Olympian deities to inhabit (quite distinct from
rulership), so that “a living presence might lend majesty to abstract
qualities”. These were Aries (Minerva), Taurus (Venus), Gemini (Apollo), Cancer
(Mercury), Leo (Jupiter), Virgo (Ceres), Libra (Vulcan), Scorpio (Mars),
Sagittarius (Diana), Capricorn (Vesta), Aquarius (Juno), Pisces (Neptune).
Nowadays,
a tropical or moving zodiac is more commonly used, based around the Sun’s yearly
return to the vernal equinox, and the solar monthly progress is measured
through the signs along the ecliptic, divided into twelve equal divisions. The
fixed zodiac and the tropical zodiac coincided in 221 AD, when the Vernal Point
had retrogressed to the exact conjunction with its sidereal counterpart. They
are currently about 24° apart, as a result of precession (the gradual turning
of the Earth’s axis around the pole of the ecliptic), and so the signs of the
zodiac no longer coincide with the constellation bearing their name. The
vernal-equinoctial point slips back at a rate of 1° in 7½ years. The Earth’s
axis and the celestial Poles rotate round the poles of the ecliptic in circles
23½° distant from them in a period of 25,800 years, so that the vernal equinox,
for instance, is presently in Pisces. Arguably, when it reaches Aquarius the
so-called Aquarian Age will begin.
Some
constellations presently cross the Celestial Equator. These are Pisces,
Aquarius, Opiuchus, Serpens Cauda, Aquila, Virgo, Leo, Sextans, Hydra, Canis
Major, Monoceros, Orion and Cetus.
Stars
(called Fixed Stars by ancient astrologers, to differentiate them from planetary
bodies, which were called Wandering Stars) are considered by those who use them
to be relevant in a natal chart when the stars are conjunct by natal planets,
angles, nodal points, and so on. Traditionally no orbs were used, though some
astrologers have adopted a system of orbs. Morin de Villefranche determined an
orb of stars related to their brilliance: 6 (1st magnitude), 5 (2nd magnitude)
and so on, but these would now be considered far too wide. Magnification is
given in the table below, V being Variable and C denoting a Cluster. Unlike
that of a planet, the influence of a fixed star was generally thought to be
dramatic, sudden, and violent. About 3,000 stars are visible to the naked eye
(of Magnitude 6 or higher), though not all at the same time, but from a
powerful telescope like that of Mount Palomar, stars of Magnitude 23 come into
view, bringing the total of visible stars to over 1,000 million.
As
the zodiacal positions are subject to correction for precession and for
rounding off, they have been amended here for 1985. The mean annual motion of a
star is 50.25”. Therefore it will take 71.6418 years on average for a star to
travel 1°. To find a star position for any year other than 1985, multiply the
number of years before or after 1985 by its annual motion, as listed in the
table, and subtract or add the result.
Many
medieval star-list compilers paid special attention to 15 stars, which were
accorded special places in relation to the lore of magical gems and talismans,
used for amuletic and therapeutic magic. These are given below in capital
letters, giving first the modern name, with the most frequently used medieval
term in brackets.
ARIES
AR 02 Deneb
Kaitos or Difda 2 45.1 Saturn
AR 09 Algenib 3 46.3 Mars/Mercury
AR 14 Alpheratz 2 46.5 Jupiter/Venus
AR 22 Baten
Kaitos 3½ 44.4 Saturn
AR 27 Al
Pherg 4 48.1 Saturn/Jupiter
AR 30 Mirach 2 50.2 Venus
TAURUS
TA 04 Sharatan 3 49.6 Mars/Mercury
TA 08 Hamal 2 50.7 Mars/Saturn
TA 14 Alamac
or Almach 2 55 Venus
TA 14 Menkar 2½ 46.9 Saturn
TA 27 ALGOL V 58.6 Saturn/Jupiter
TA 30 ALCYONE
(in Pleiades) 3 53.4 Moon/Mars
GEMINI
GE 06 Primum
Hyadum 4 51.1 Saturn/Mercury
GE 10 ALDEBARAN 1 51.6 Mars
GE 17 Rigel 1 43.2 Jupiter/Mars
GE 21 Bellatrix 2 48.3 Mars/Mercury
GE 22 CAPELLA
(Hircus) 1 66.4 Mars/Mercury
GE 22 Phact 2 32.5 Venus/Mercury
GE 23 El
Nath 2 56.8 Mars
GE 23 Mintaka 2 45.9 Saturn/Mercury
GE 24 Alnilam 2 45.6 Jupiter/Saturn
GE 25 Al
Hecka 3 53.8 Mars
GE 29 POLARIS
(Cauda Ursae) 2 450.6 Saturn/Venus
GE 29 Betelgeuse 1 48.7 Mars/Mercury
GE 30 Menkalinan 2 66 Mars/Mercury
CANCER
CN 03 Tejat 3 54.3 Mercury/Venus
CN 05 Dirah 3 54.4 Mercury/Venus
CN 09 Alhena 2 52 Mercury/Venus
CN 14 SIRIUS
(Canis Major) 1 39.6 Jupiter/Mars
CN 15 Canopus 1 18.3 Saturn/Jupiter
CN 19 Propus 4 53.6 Mercury/Venus
CN 19 Wasat 3 55.9 Saturn
CN 20 Castor 2 57.4 Mercury
CN 23 Pollux 1 55.2 Mars
CN 26 PROCYON 1 47.1 Mercury/Mars
LEO
LE 08 Ascelli:
N Ascellus/ 5 52.3 Mars/Sun
LE 09 S
Ascellus 4 51.1 Mars/Sun
LE 14 Acubens 4 49.2 Saturn/Mercury
LE 15 Dubhe 2 Mars
LE 21 Algenubi 3 51.1 Saturn/Mars
LE 28 Al
Jabha 3 49 Saturn/Mercury
LE 28 Alphard 2 44.2 Saturn/Venus
LE 29 Adhafera 3 50.1 Saturn/Mercury
LE 30 REGULUS
(Cor Leonis) 1 49 Mars/Jupiter
VIRGO
VI 11 Zosma 2 47.8 Saturn/Venus
VI 15 Mirak 2½ Mars
VI 22 Denebola 2 45.9 Saturn/Venus
VI 27 Benetnash 2 Mars
VI 27 Labrum 4 34.5 Venus/Mercury
VI 27 Zavijava 3½ 46.9 Mercury/Mars
VI 29 Markeb 2½ 27.9 Saturn/Jupiter
LIBRA
LI 05 Zaniah 4 46 Mars/Venus
LI 10 Vindemiatrix 3 44.8 Saturn/Mercury
LI 10 Caphir 3½ 45.6 Mercury/Venus
LI 14 ALGORAB
(Ala Corvi) 3 46.5 Mars/Saturn
LI 18 Seginus 3 36.3 Mercury/Saturn
LI 23 Foramen V 57.3 Saturn/Jupiter
LI 24 SPICA 1 47.4 Venus/Mars
LI 25 ARCTURUS
(Alchamath) 1 41.1 Mars/Jupiter
SCORPIO
SC 03 Princeps 3 36.3 Mercury/Saturn
SC 07 Khambalia 4 47.8 Venus/Mars
SC 12 Acrux 1 49.8 Jupiter
SC 12 ALPHECCA
(Elpheia) 2 38.1 Venus/Mercury
SC 15 South
Scale (Zubenelgenubi) 3 49.6 Jupiter/Mars
SC 19 North
Scale (Zubenelschamali) 2½ 48.4 Jupiter/Mercury
SC 22 Unukalhai 2½ 44.2 Saturn/Mars
SC 24 Agena 1 63.1 Venus/Jupiter
SC 30 Rigil
Kentaurus 1 60.9 Venus/Jupiter
SAGITTARIUS
SA 03 Yed
Prior 3 47.1 Saturn/Venus
SA 03 Yed
Posterior 3 Venus/Saturn
SA 03 Isidis 2 53.1 Mars/Saturn
SA 03 Graffias 3 52.2 Mars/Saturn
SA 09 Han 3 49.5 Saturn/Venus
SA 10 ANTARES 1 55 Mars/Jupiter
SA 12 Rastaban 3 20.2 Saturn/Venus
SA 18 Sabik 2 51.6 Saturn/Venus
SA 23 Rasalhague 2 41.7 Saturn/Venus
SA 24 Lesath 3 61 Mercury/Mars
SA 26 Aculeus C 58.3 Mars/Moon
SA 29 Acumen C 59.8 Mars/Moon
SA 30 Sinistra 3 49.5 Saturn/Venus
CAPRICORN
CP 03 Polis 4 53.6 Jupiter/Mars
CP 13 Pelagus 2 55.8 Jupiter/Mercury
CP 14 Ascella 3 57.3 Jupiter/Mercury
CP 15 Manubrium 4½ 53.6 Sun/Mars
CP 15 VEGA
(Vultur Cadens) 1 30.4 Venus/Mercury
CP 20 Deneb 3 41.4 Mars/Jupiter
CP 26 Terebellum 6 54.7 Venus/Saturn
AQUARIUS
AQ 02 Albireo 3 36.3 Venus/Mercury
AQ 02 Altair 1 43.9 Mars/Jupiter
AQ 04 Dabith 3 50.5 Saturn/Venus
AQ 04 Giedi 4 49.9 Venus/Mars
AQ 05 Bos 5 51.3 Saturn/Venus
AQ 05 Oculus 5 51.4 Saturn/Venus
AQ 13 Armus 5 51.1 Mars/Mercury
AQ 14 Dorsum 5 50.4 Saturn/Jupiter
AQ 20 Castra 5 50.4 Saturn/Jupiter
AQ 22 Nashira 4 49.9 Saturn/Jupiter
AQ 24 DENEB
ALGEDI 3 49.6 Saturn/Jupiter
AQ 24 Sadalsuud 3 47.4 Saturn/Mercury
PISCES
PI 03 Sadalmelik 3 46.2 Saturn/Mercury
PI 04 Fomalhaut 1 49.8 Venus/Mercury
PI 05 Deneb
Adige or Deneb Cygni 1 30.6 Venus/Mercury
PI 09 Skat 3 47.8 Saturn/Jupiter
PI 15 Achernar 1 33.6 Jupiter
PI 24 Markab 2 44.8 Mars/Mercury
PI 29 Scheat 2 43.6 Mars/Mercury
The Fixed Stars In
Alphabetical Order:
PI 15 Achernar -57 29
SC 12 Acrux -62 49
LE 14 Acubens 12 03
SA 26 Aculeus
SA 29 Acumen
LE 29 Adhafera 23
40
SC 24 Agena -60
08
TA 14 Alamac 42
05
AQ 02 Albireo 27
51
TA 30 ALCYONE (in Pleiades) 23 57
GE 10 ALDEBARAN 16 25
AR 09 Algenib (or Mirfak) 49 41
LE 21 Algenubi
TA 27 ALGOL 40
46
LI 14 ALGORAB (Ala Corvi) -16 14
GE 25 Alhecka
CN 09 Alhena 16
27
LE 28 Al Jabha
TA 14 Almach
GE 24 Alnilam -1
14
LE 28 Alphard
SC 12 ALPHECCA (Elpheia)
AR 14 Alpheratz
AR 27 Al Pherg
AQ 02 Altair 8
44
SA 10 ANTARES -26
19
LI 25 ARCTURUS (Alchamath) 19 27
AQ 13 Armus
CP 14 Ascella -29
57
LE 08.5 Ascelli
AR 22 Baten Kaitos -10 35
GE 21 Bellatrix 6
18
VI 27 Benetnash 49
34
GE 29 Betelgeuse 7
24
AQ 05 Bos
CN 15 Canopus -52
40
GE 22 CAPELLA (Hircus) 45 57
LI 10 Caphir
CN 20 Castor 32
00
AQ 20 Castra
AQ 04 Dabith
CP 20 Deneb
PI 05 Deneb Adige
AQ 24 DENEB ALGEDI -16 21
AR 02 Deneb Kaitos -18 16
VI 22 Denebola 14
51
CN 05 Dirah
AQ 14 Dorsum
LE 15 Dubhe 62
01
GE 23 El Nath 28
34
PI 04 Fomalhaut -29
53
LI 23 Foramen
AQ 04 Giedi
SA 03 Graffias -42
17
TA 08 Hamal 23
14
SA 09 Han
SA 03 Isidis
SC 07 Khambalia
VI 27 Labrum
SA 24 Lesath -19
20
CP 15 Manubrium
PI 24 Markab 14
56
VI 29 Markeb
GE 30 Menkalinan 44 57
TA 14 Menkar 3
54
GE 23 Mintaka -0
20
AR 30 Mirach 35
21
VI 15 Mirak
AQ 22 Nashira -16
53
SC 19 North Scale
(Zubenelschamali) -09 12
AQ 05 Oculus
CP 13 Pelagus
GE 22 Phact -34
06
GE 29 POLARIS (Cauda Ursae) 89 02
CP 03 Polis
CN 23 Pollux 28
09
GE 06 Primum Hyadum
SC 03 Princeps
CN 26 PROCYON 5
21
CN 19 Propus
SA 23 Rasalhague 12 36
SA 12 Rastaban
LE 30 REGULUS (Cor Leonis) 12 13
GE 17 Rigel -8
15
SC 30 Rigil Kentaurus
SA 18 Sabik -15
40
PI 03 Sadalmelik -0
34
AQ 24 Sadalsuud -5
48
PI 29 Scheat 27
49
LI 18 Seginus
TA 04 Sharatan
SA 30 Sinistra
CN 14 SIRIUS (Canis Major) -16 39
PI 09 Skat -16
05
LI 24 SPICA -10
54
SC 15 South Scale (Zubenelgenubi) -15 50
CN 03 Tejat 22
31
CP 26 Terebellum
SC 22 Unukalhai 6
35
LI 10 Vindemiatrix 11 14
CN 19 Wasat 22
05
CP 15 VEGA (Vultur Cadens) 38 44
SA 03 Yed Prior -3
34
SA 03 Yed Posterior -4 34
LI 05 Zaniah
VI 27 Zavijava 2
03
VI 11 Zosma 20
00